The Development and
Practice of Literacy: A Voyage of Discovery
Dr Gayner Eyre,
Lecturer, Department
of Information Studies, University of Wales Aberystwyth
Adjunct Senior Lecturer,
Faculty of Science and Agriculture, Charles Sturt University, Australia
Abstract
UNESCO’s Decade
of Literacy (2003-2012) provides an opportunity for the library movement
to reflection on its potential contribution to literacy as part of the
lifelong learning agenda. Literacy is a basic human right yet a large
number of people worldwide, two thirds of them women, are classified
as illiterate. Illiteracy presents problems for both individuals and
society whether in developing countries or in sections of richer nations.
Literacy is a dynamic
concept and is changing to embrace multiple literacies. Approaches to
literacy development are tending towards a
‘literacy for living’ approach, relating the development of literacy
to the everyday lives of individuals and setting it within the context
of sustainable development. Literacy is
seen as key to poverty eradication and as an important step to improving
economies. In developing countries this is often related to the development
of agriculture.
There are many barriers
to literacy development, particularly in poorer nations, but partnerships
are a possible way forward. The library has a key role and it is necessary
to devise creative strategies to enhance this role.
Introduction
(2003-2012) has been
designated UNESCO’s Decade of
Literacy. This initiative provides an opportunity for the library
movement to reflection on its potential contribution to literacy as
part of the lifelong learning agenda. This paper argues the case for
rethinking the role of libraries in the literacy debate and acknowledging
the importance of fostering literacy in society.
In 2004, I gave a paper
at the Australian Library and Information Association on the role of
the public library in supporting literacy. I was approached afterwards
and asked if I would adapt that paper, incorporating initiatives in
developing countries. On agreeing, I was blissfully ignorant of the
enormity of the task. Most countries offer some kind of literacy policy
and programme (Oxenham, 2004). It is therefore not possible to be comprehensive
when referring to the programmes of countries, so an overview only is
provided. As this has proved to be such a large subject, neither is
it possible to say all there is to say about it in a paper of this length.
The aim of this paper, is therefore to provide a context and to highlight
some issues that may be of relevance to the library profession
The focus is on adult
literacy, although it is acknowledged that developing literacy in adults
is but one facet of improving literacy rates. Adult literacy, in most
documentation and programmes, refers to adults above the age of 15.
The documentation for the United Nations Literacy Decade plan of action,
for example, stresses that literacy ‘is central to all levels of education’
and does highlight the need to focus on children and youth (UN, 2002
p4).
The United Nations
Decade of Literacy
We are currently operating
within the United Nations’ Decade of Literacy, which
under the umbrella concept of Education for All, runs from 2003
– 2012 inclusive. The resolution for the proclamation that this decade
be devoted to literacy was adopted in 1999 at the General Assembly of
the United Nations. In the preamble to the General Assembly’s resolution
56/116, a statement was made that ‘literacy is crucial to the acquisition,
by every child, youth, and adult, of essential life skills’ (UN 2002,
p.3). The aim of the decade is not only to highlight the existing problems
relating to literacy, but also to ‘extend the use of literacy to those
who do not have access to it’, and in particular emphasises the disadvantaged
and women as key targets (UNESCO, 2004). Its ultimate goal is to increase
worldwide literacy rates by 50% by 2015.
The rationale behind
establishing the decade includes some of the following points:
The numbers of people worldwide
who are unable to communicate through literacy (861 million people,
two-thirds of which are women).
The contribution of inequity
of literacy to the deprivation and subordination of women.
The fact that literacy is
basic human right, declared as such for its pivotal role in basic education,
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights fifty years ago.
The belief that both national
and international literacy efforts have, up to now, proved inadequate.
The international community
deems that the promotion of literacy is beneficial to all.
In The International
Plan of Action six areas of activity are identified:
National policies
which provide a framework which includes multilingual approaches and
freedom of expression, and link literacy strategies with other social
concerns.
Flexible programmes
which include flexible modes of delivery and well trained facilitators
using interesting materials that reflect racial, gender and language
differences.
Capacity Building,
including issues such as management and planning, curriculum design,
research and documentation.
Research
into the impact of literacy and ways to achieve literacy – evidence
based practice.
Community participation
Monitoring and evaluation
in the form of better literacy standards (Eyre 2004)
What is literacy?
The term literacy has
been defined and redefined over the last few decades. The International
Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) defines it thus:
The ability to understand
and employ printed information in daily activities, at home, at work
and in the community – to achieve one’s goals and to develop one’s
knowledge and potential (OECD, 2001)
Three ‘domains of literacy
skills’ were also identified as follows:
Prose literacy
– the skills to understand and use information from texts
Document literacy
– the ability to locate and use information in a variety of formats
Quantitative literacy
– the ability to apply arithmetic operations and to understand numbers
embedded in printed materials (ACAL 2001)
Current thinking is that
there are varying levels of literacy and that ‘literate’ and ‘illiterate’
are not two distinct categories (Bundy 1999). The IALS survey stresses
that literacy is no longer thought of as ‘a condition that either
adults have or have not’ (OECD 2001), and that literacy should no
longer be defined as some ‘arbitrary test’ which separates those
who reach a minimum standard from those who fall below it. It is now
considered to be a set of proficiency levels ranged along a continuum
representing how well adults use information to function in everyday
life. Literacy is also dynamic (Eyre 2003), every individual will vary
at different stages according to circumstance and skills acquisition.
Notions of what literacy comprises are also dynamic.
Information literacy
is increasingly seen to be an integral part of literacy acquisition.
The United Nations’ International Plan of Action in describing
the vision for the Decade of Literacy makes this statement:
In the rapidly changing
world of today’s knowledge society, with the new and progressive use
of newer and innovative technological means of communication, literacy
requirements continue to expand regularly. In order to survive in today’s
globalised world, it has become necessary for all people to learn new
literacies and develop the ability to locate, evaluate and effectively
use information in multiple manners (United Nations 2002 p4).
A call is made for a
‘renewed vision of literacy’ which requires policies and programmes
to ‘go beyond the limited view of literacy that has dominated the
past’ (United Nations 2002 p.4).
New thinking on literacy
and its acquisition and therefore recent literacy programmes tend to
link literacy within the environment in which that development is taking
place. This is summarised by Torres:
‘literacy’ encompasses
more than the basic skills of reading, writing and calculating. It can
and does involve learning and education for combinations of: personal
satisfaction, healthier family life, more productive livelihoods, accessing
credit, establishing and managing a business, stronger support for educating
children, deeper understanding of local, national and even international
conditions, stronger participation in civic affairs and social development,
capacities to require accountability from public services, knowledge
of rights and how to insist on them (2003 p.141)
This statement not only
relates back to the reasons why ‘literacy for all’ is important
but also exemplifies new approaches to literacy development, ie contextualising
literacy. As Oxenham argues, basic skills are not ends in themselves
and without the context ‘serve no purpose’ (Oxenham 2004 p.2).
The figures
It is estimated that
there are 785 million adults (+15 years old), who are illiterate. Two
thirds of these are women (UNESCO, 2005) The IALS results found that
across twenty countries, one in four adults who participated in the
study do not possess the necessary literacy skills to manage in today’s
world. It is a reasonable assumption that the study took place in poorer
or less developed countries, but this is not so. The sample included,
amongst other nations, the USA, Canada, four Scandinavian countries,
Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. In
confirmation of this statistic Hartman, (Draeger and Bernstein cited
in Fisher 1999 p.56) reported that at least twenty per cent of US adults
were functionally illiterate. Between forty and forty-five million
people in the United States are unable to understand written materials
requiring the most basic reading skills (Fisher 1999 p.57). One in five
Australian adults do not possess sufficient literacy skills to participate
in everyday life (OECD 2000a).
Literacy rates
per UNESCO Region 2000-2004
Region
Total
%
Male%
Female%
World
81.8
86.9
76.8
Africa
59.9
68.9
51.2
Americas
93.5
94.1
93.0
Asia
79.0
86.6
72.1
Europe
98.7
99.1
98.4
Oceania
92.6
93.5
91.7
Source: UNESCO Institute
for Statistics (2005)
There are a number of
interesting points on looking at the chart
The literacy rates for Africa
are significantly lower than for other continents
There is a correlation between
total illiteracy rates and those of women (ie the lower the overall
rate, the greater discrepancy between men and women
Literacy rates per EFA (Education for All) Region 2000-2004
Region
Total
%
Male%
Female%
World
81.9
86.9
76.8
Arab States
62.7
73.8
51.1
Central and
Eastern Europe
97.4
98.9
96.2
Central Asia
99.2
99.6
98.9
East Asia and
the Pacific
91.4
95.0
87.7
Latin America
and the Caribbean
89.7
90.5
88.9
North America
and Western Europe
98.7
99.0
98.4
South and West
Asia
58.6
70.5
46.2
Sub-Saharan
Africa
59.8
68.2
51.8
Source: UNESCO Institute
for Statistics (2005)
Breaking down the regions
highlights that there are particular concentrations of illiteracy which
do not always show up in breakdowns of broader area. South and West
Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa, closely followed by the Arab States stand
out. Again these areas show the greatest discrepancy between the literacy
rates of males and females.
Literacy rates
per MDG Region 2000-2004
Region
Total
%
Male%
Female%
World
81.9
86.9
76.8
Developing Countries
76.5
83.2
69.7
Northern Africa
60.1
71.5
48.9
Sub-Saharan
Africa
59.8
68.2
51.7
Latin America
and the Caribbean
89.7
90.6
89.0
Eastern Asia
91.3
95.4
87.1
South Asia
58.7
70.5
46.2
South-Eastern
Asia
89.2
92.8
86.7
Western Asia
77.6
86.3
68.3
Oceania
67.8
72.6
62.8
Source: UNESCO Institute
for Statistics (2005)
As may be seen by further
division the lowest scoring regions are Sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia, but this again does not create a clear picture. Looking at these
regions in more detail is even more revealing
The Chart below shows
the illiteracy rates of some of the lowest scoring countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa:
Levels of illiteracy
countries in Sub-Saharan Africa with lowest
– scoring literacy levels:
Country
Total
%
Male%
Female%
Niger
84
77
92
Gambia
64
56
70
Sierra Leone
64
49
77
Senegal
63
53
72
Ethiopia
61
56
67
Source: UNESCO Statistical
Yearbook (1999-2000)
.
UNESCO and other agencies
concerned with literacy development strongly link poverty and illiteracy.
The figures for Niger, above would bear this out. Compare this
with the two top-scoring Sub-Saharan countries:
Levels of illiteracy
in Sub-Saharan Africa with highest
–scoring literacy levels
Country
Total
%
Male%
Female%
South Africa
15
14
16
Zimbabwe
7
5
10
Source: UNESCO Statistical
Yearbook (1999-2000)
The statistics relating
to individual African countries are illustrative of patterns throughout
the developing world. Where there has been colonisation, by whatever
‘developed’ country, literacy rates are higher. The figures
given above exemplify this – South Africa and Zimbabwe have the highest
literacy rates of Sub-Saharan African countries, whilst Niger has the
lowest. As will be discussed later, this probable cause is the link
between literacy and poverty, and the link between poverty and infrastructure.
Why is literacy an
important issue?
Lack of literacy skills
on this scale causes problems for living, working and for survival in
virtually every area of life. In developed countries using automatic
teller machines, the internet, e-mail, filling in taxation forms or
understanding supermarket checkout procedures are just some of the day-to-day
tasks that require people to apply literacy and numeracy skills in diverse
ways. In relation to developing countries, ‘poor literacy skills increase
one’s vulnerability and dependency on other people’ (Scott-Goldman
2001 p12).
The age in which we are
living is characterised by the developments that have taken place in
technology and, in particular, information and communication technologies
(ICT). The convergence of telecommunications, broadcasting and computers
has had a significant impact upon society, comparable with previous
major societal changes such as the industrial revolution or the advent
of the printing press. The result of the latest revolution is unprecedented
globalisation, the impact of which is so great that sociologists and
anthropologists are now redefining our notions of community,
as the geographical definition becomes decreasingly relevant. The net
result of the societal changes brought about by this quiet revolution
is that inequality in society is growing, amongst nations and amongst
individuals. The ability to function effectively in the Information
Society requires a high degree of literacy and a complexity of skills
which is leaving some people behind (Eyre 2004).
The ability to function
effectively in what has been dubbed the Information Society requires
high calibre literacy proficiency and the possession of a wide range
of skills
…the movement towards
an information based society are factors which suggest, as never before,
that literacy is an essential instrument for effective participation
in society (ALIA, 1996).
This overriding importance
of literacy acquisition is endorsed by The International Adult Literacy
Survey (IALS), a large-scale collaborative venture undertaken by
national statistical organisations, research institutions and the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development. The report’s definition
of Adult literacy includes a statement that goes some way to explaining
why:
Differences in levels
of literacy matter both economically and socially: literacy affects,
inter alia, labour quality and flexibility, employment, training opportunities,
income from work and wider participation in civic society (OECD 2000a).
Literacy skills are important
for employment. The IALS survey results demonstrate close correlation
between employment status, earning capacity and literacy levels. (OECD
2000a) Higher literacy levels are shown to contribute to increased
wealth both individually and collectively. ‘A 2 per cent increase
in national productivity, through increased literacy could provide a
1.8% increase in revenue’ (Australian Council for Adult Literacy 2001
p.7).
Literacy is important
in the workplace. Hull (1999) cites a case study in the USA where workers
in an electronics factory nearly caused a major and costly mistake because
they failed to understand written instructions. Scott-Goldman, discussing
practices in a South African concern, the Mineworkers Development Agency,
maintains that ‘where members cannot evaluate the correctness of the
book-keeping by another member, suspicions can arise which weaken the
social cohesion of the group’ (Scott-Goldman 2001 p13).
Changes in healthcare also
exemplify the need for literacy skills. Higher literacy levels are associated
with increased longevity and healthier lifestyles (OECD 2000b). Fisher
(1999) argues that the pressures on the medical profession mean shorter
stays in hospital and patients being discharged earlier. This requires
that patients assume more responsibility for increasingly complex procedures
and treatments.
If the acquisition of
literacy is important in ‘First World’ countries, it could be argued
that it is even more significant in developing countries. The
United Nations views literacy acquisition as crucial to effective participation
in 21st century societies and economies and claims it as
a foundation to some very important life issues:
Creating literate
environments and societies is essential for achieving the goals of eradicating
poverty, reducing child mortality, curbing population growth, achieving
gender equality, and ensuring sustainable development, peace and democracy
(United Nations 2002 p3)
The theme of linking
Illiteracy with poverty is prevalent in the programmes being operated
in most countries, whether by governments, International bodies or private
organisations.
A World Bank review of
13 developing countries suggests that people who take part in basic
skills programmes:
Augment their production and
incomes
Show enhanced confidence and
autonomy within their…communities
Participate more strongly
in community and political affairs
Show better understanding
of messages disseminated by radio
Send and keep their children
in school
Alter their health and nutritional
practices (Scott-Goldman 2001 p.12)
Approaches to Literacy
Development
A brief look at changes
in approaches to literacy may help to clarify current thinking.
Dates
Approach
Philosophical
Underpinnings
Pre 1950
Basic skills approach.
‘One size fits
all’
1960s -
Functional Literacy
Literacy is a means
to an end
Constructivist approach,
ie each individual builds on own knowledge and experience and relates
to daily life.
1970s
-
Literacy for Empowerment
Based on work of
Brazilian educator Paolo Freire;
Political and social
change is generated from below
Individuals encouraged
to reflect on their predicaments and causes to effect change
1993 -
REFLECT (Regenerated
Freirean Literacy through Empowering Communty Techniques)
Empowering the
poor to improve situations
Of the reports read for
this paper some literacy initiatives, such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa
undertaken by the World Bank, favour the Functional Literacy
approach, whilst the REFLECT model seems to be widespread in initiatives
on the Indian Sub-continent.
Literacy for Living
The approaches and their
underlying philosophies, outlined previously, have given rise to the
notion of ‘Literacy for Living’. These are evident in policies and
literacy schemes in developing countries, where there tends to be great
emphasis on the development of literacy amongst the poor. Oxenham (2004)
contends that the ‘reciprocally reinforcing effects between life and
livelihood skills on the one hand and literacy skills on the other’
have been recognised by UNESCO and other organisations for a number
of decades. It has been found that ‘livelihood-led’ programmes are
more successful than those based on just literacy, and the demand for
literacy is likely to be stronger if the relevance of literacy skills
for life is demonstrated. In addition those organisations concerned
with development seem to be better at delivering literacy programmes
(Oxenham et al 2002).
The ‘Literacy for Livelihoods’
conference in December 2000 exemplified the shift in emphasis away from
concentration on reading and writing to more pragmatic life-based approaches.
…literacy
is more than learning how to read and write – it means that people
have better access to information regarding health, gain self-esteem,
have better job prospects and are often more likely to have a greater
voice in local decision-making (Clarke, 2001 p1)
Eritrea which implemented
a number of adult literacy programmes between 1994 and 1999 sees ‘illiteracy
as a stumbling block to the technical revolution in agriculture,
industry and social transformations in Eritrea’ (Ogbaghiorghis 1999
p1) These programmes, which incidentally targeted women in particular,
were based on three premises:
The need to improve productivity
and growth
Fulfilling the basic human
right of every citizen - literacy expands personal choice, control
of one’s environment, and allows for collective action (p.1)
Political reasons ‘during
the National liberation struggle, literacy programmes were used to acquaint
the people with political, social and economic policies, create political
mobilisation and assure greater participation of the people in the social
transformation and the liberation struggle’ (p1)
The United Nations has
awarded ‘International Literacy Prizes’ for 2005 to Spain, Mozambique,
and Sudan on the theme of ‘literacy and sustainable development’.
This combination of concepts is becoming more widespread. The ‘Sustainable
Livelihoods Approach’ concentrates on developing literacy amongst
poorer people and seeks to contextualise literacy programmes in terms
of their lives. It takes the notion of ‘literacy for life’ further
by embedding literacy within a framework of ‘assets’ or ‘capitals’.
Scott-Goldman, in a paper
explaining this approach concurs with the view given above:
Literacy
is a key tool in acquiring the skills and knowledge to pursue different
livelihood strategies. Greater degrees of literacy skill also make it
easier to make the most of other assets – human, financial, and social,
[more on these factors later]. Management of disease, health and family
planning is dependent on information (Scott-Goldman 2001 p11).
The over-arching
aim of the ‘Sustainable Livelihood Approach’ is really an
approach to poverty reduction and is based on a number of premises:
that it is people-centred, responsive and participatory, ie takes into
consideration the views, opinions and circumstances of individuals;
takes into consideration external factors at both ‘micro and
macro’ levels.
The ‘Sustainable Livelihoods
Framework’ is a tool for looking ‘holistically’ at people’s
lives. It is based on the philosophy that development should be built
on people’s strengths or assets – a positive stance, rather than
from their needs – negative stance (Scott-Goldman 2001 p8).
Assets or capital may
be grouped into five areas
Natural Capital
Land,
water, wildlife
Social Capital
Networks,
social groupings, relationships of trust, wider access to society’s
institutions
Human Capital
Skills,
knowledge, health, ability to work
Physical Capital
Infrastructure
– transport, communications, energy, shelter, water
Financial Capital
Income,
pensions, lines of credit etc
Literacy falls into the
area of Human Capital, though Scott Goldman argues that literacy also
‘interacts strongly’ with Social Capital, for example, discussions
at community level need to be recorded.
Literacy in Developing
Countries
Many literacy programmes
in developing countries aim to eradicate poverty, improve the economy
and improve other areas of employment in addition to other areas of
people’s lives. In Zanzibar, for example the fishing areas of Unguja
and Pemba were targeted for literacy programmes (Saadat 2005). Farmers
were also targeted. National economic development in many of these countries
strongly featured agriculture. In Tanzania agricultural transformation
was seen as ‘pivotal’ to ‘economic development’. Further, agriculture
is viewed as ‘a significant factor in the improvement of living conditions
of the rural people’ (Manda 2002 p181) In Nepal, thinking behind the
national literacy programme there is based on the premise that ‘Illiteracy
contributes to reduced agricultural productivity and poverty’ (Chitrakar
2000). In Pakistan, where poverty affects about one third of the population,
there is a high dependence on agriculture (Bines &Morris 2000 p.1).
The literacy campaign of the country is aimed at poverty alleviation
For the past 80 years
or so national campaigns have usually either been the preserve of governments
of those countries or international bodies such as UNESCO. Small private
schemes have been operating, independently of governments. One large
international scheme is that of the World Bank which operates programmes
in Sub-Saharan Africa (Lauglo 2000). From the mid 1990’s a number
of contracts have been drawn up between governments, such as those
of Bangladesh and Senegal (Oxenham 2004 p.5) and private organisations
to offer joint programmes.
Issues in literacy
development
On reading the literature
a number of issues related to literacy development emerge. The environment
in which people find themselves may have a large impact on their chances
of achieving literacy. People are not islands. The external environment
in which they find themselves has an impact on what they are, do and
what they are able to achieve. The report on Eritrea (Ogbaghiorghis
1999) highlighted that one of the main challenges had been in creating
a literate environment. Here, there was a great regional disparity in
take up of courses and an ‘unequal and inequitable distribution of
provision’ (p.2). Densely populated areas were far better catered
for than rural and remote areas.
Issues such as political
tension or instability, gender specific issues or disease such as HIV/Aids
will have a significant impact. While people may act locally, their
access to resources and services is affected by policies and institutions
at local, regional and central levels (Scott-Goldman 2001 p9).
Infrastructure
Government policies have
a strong influence on people’s lives, not just in terms of implementation
of literacy policies but in terms of the infrastructure to support this,
for example basic communication such as phones broadcasting technologies
and computers and public library networks that we, in ‘western’
countries take for granted.
Take Eritrea as an example:
one of the features of the literacy programmes was the establishment,
by the Government, of ’96 listening stations’ and the distribution
of 340 radio sets to adult listeners. The idea was that groups in a
neighbourhood would listen together (Ogbaghiorghis 1999).
In some countries the
lack of infrastructure is so severe that even the provision of an education
system is difficult. In Eritrea, for example ‘providing education
in the formal school system to every citizen is not possible’ (Ogbaghiorghis
1999 p.4).
It is now received wisdom
that an effective information society requires adequate infrastructure.
There is an obvious link between infrastructure and literacy.
We have already seen in those figures for Sub-Saharan Africa that those
countries that were colonised have higher literacy rates. The answer
must, to some extent, lie in the infrastructure. In fact there is a
symbiotic link between the two. Literacy is needed in order for a society
to create an infrastructure, but adequate infrastructures are necessary
to foster literacy. The development of agriculture in Tanzania highlights
this link:
The dissemination
of information is the basic sociological process leading to agricultural
change and development (Monu cited in Manda 2002 p182)
This dissemination relies
on the adoption of ‘various channels of communication such as
mass media’ (Manda 2002 p182). Channels of communication are an integral
and important part of a developed infrastructure. ‘The transformation
of the economic infrastructure is a precondition for information to
make a noticeable impact on agricultural change in Tanzqania (Manda
2002 p187).
The infrastructures in
Western civilisations provide us with, amongst many other things, a
magnificent range of libraries that we take for granted. The history
of library development however demonstrates that the earliest libraries
developed in places such as in Greece and Rome, rich countries with
highly developed infrastructures and cultural aspirations. Developing
countries struggle to provide basic services such as education, let
alone libraries. To return to Tanzania, Manda (2002 p.187) in discussing
agriculture’s role in economic development in the country has this
to say:
…libraries can
have an indirect bearing on agricultural development, for example by
supporting literacy programmes and the development of reading habits
generally, rather than addressing the …information needs of farmers.
Even to realise these modest objectives, rural libraries have to established
with the involvement of local people… This is especially important
for countries like Tanzania where lilbraries at district level are non-existent.
Language
Oxenham (2004 p.6) states
that there is a long held view that individuals acquire literacy most
easily in their mother-tongues. This presents challenges for literacy
development in those countries in which multiple languages are spoken.
In Britain, almost six hundred years ago, the advent of the printing
press resulted in a standard of English being chosen from amongst dozens
of dialects. This is still an issue to be resolved in some developing
countries where there could be hundreds of languages.
In some of these countries,
a handful of languages may be familiar to most of the population and
so multilingual countries select a few languages that are familiar to
most of the population. Some countries feel the need to select more.
Ghana for example has delivered programmes in 15 languages, Nigeria
more. Some countries, such as Namibia, select an international language to override
the indigenous tongues. (Oxenham 2004 p.6).
In Bangladesh,
the use of the mother tongue is described as a ‘highly emotive’
issue and ‘the fight for the use of it triggered the war of independence’
(Kelly & Banham 2000 p.1). Literacy attainment in that tongue is
therefore seen as very important.
The availability of relevant materials
The availability of relevant
materials, particularly in mother-tongue languages, is another issue.
In lessons learned from literacy initiatives in Ghana (Blunch
& Porter 2004) it was found that…’literacy programmes are best
designed in partnership with learners using materials and topics relevant
to everyday life’
In India, there was found
to be ‘a dearth of learner generated materials’ (Townsend et al
2000 p. 9). This was viewed as a problem because such materials are
seen as based on local experience and culturally appropriate.
The Community Literacy
Project Nepal, which aims to support the existing social uses of literacy
in Nepal (Chitraker 2000 p. 1) encompassed local initiatives. One of
these was the monthly production of ‘wall newspapers’, hand written
and illustrated and described as ‘works of art’. These newspapers
are covered in plastic for protection and pasted on the walls in the
main bazaar locations.
In an evaluation of Eritrea’s
literacy problems, the low level of literacy in local languages was
seen as a problem (Ogbaghiorghis 1999 p.2) coupled with the lack of
newspapers and reading materials in those languages.
Gender Issues
The figures previously
given demonstrate the high correlation between national and regional
illiteracy and the disparity between literacy levels in men and women.
Interestingly, most literacy programmes enrol more women than men (Oxenham
2002). Part of the mission for UNESCO’s Decade of Literacy
is to specifically target women. This is reflected in the policies of
many countries. Examples of countries targeting women in literacy programmes
are Eritrea (Ogbaghiorghis 1999), Zanzibar Saadat, 2005 p.2) and Pakistan
(Bines & Morris 2000 p.2).
India also targets women
in its literacy campaigns. Despite raising literacy levels from 18.3%
in 1951 to 52% by 1991, a large number of those who remain illiterate
are women (Townsend et al 2000 p.3). A small anecdote explains the implications
of this:
Illiteracy often
results in missed opportunities. In Manipur, for example, the tribal
women weave exquisite woollen and cotton shawls. Yet they have been
denied lucrative employment opportunities because export firms hesitate
to buy from them as no two shawls they weave are the same size (Townsend
et al 2000 p.2-3)
Presumably, the production
and use of patterns would help to alleviate this.
In addition to employment
issues, illiteracy also raises questions regarding human rights:
Illiteracy and lack
of information can adversely affect human rights. Incidents of torture
and custodial rape are well documented and yet women are not even aware
that they have a right to the presence of a policewoman during interrogation
(Townsend et al 2000 p. 3).
Other issues
The report on Eritrea
noted a low level of participation (4% of ‘illiterate’ population),
mixed rates of. completion of programmes (48.4% of males and 71.3% of
females). and highlighted the problem of maintaining literacy
standards once they had been achieved (Ogbaghiorghis 1999) . ‘Without
opportunities for continued practice and learning, much of the attainment
is likely to fall into disuse over a period of years’ (Oxenham p.7)
However, Oxenham reporting on a number of evaluation studies found that
overall, 80% of people taking well-run literacy classes complete the
course (2004 p 6).
In Eritrea it was found
that literacy campaigns in urban communities which had more resources
were more successful than in rural areas (Ogbaghiorghis 1999). This
was echoed in India, where an evaluation found that ‘districts fared
poorly’ and more than 50% of learners were left behind (Townsend et
al 2000 p. 3).
The governments of many
countries set very ambitious targets. In Bangladesh, for example,
the targets set were 62% literacy levels by 2000, 70% by 2002 and 100%
by 2006. (Kelly& Banham 2000 p.3). Many countries see these targets
as unattainable. Many literacy programmes fail because governments fail
to make sufficient resources available (Oxenham 2004 p.17), but many
cannot allocate enough for education provision at all levels. Other
initiatives fail because they lack a strategic framework for literacy
development. It was found that success rates were not dependent on modes
of delivery or pedagogical methods. People can and do learn under differing
conditions (Oxenham 2004 p.6).
Literacy in Partnership
Whether in developed
or developing countries, it now appears to be accepted wisdom that literacy
schemes should be provided in partnership and those that are prove to
be the most successful. Oxenham argues that ‘partnerships offer the
possibility of a larger diversity of curricula’ (Oxenham 2004 p16).
The initiatives in India, and more recently Bangladesh and Senegal are
evidence of this (Oxenham2004) to operate at the local level. Such organisations
may be the local branches of international non-government bodies, some
not for profit, but also some for profit operations. It is argues that
such partnerships increase access to materials, methods and content
(Oxenham 2004 p.5)
The ‘Sustainable Livelihoods
Approach’ advocates a cross-sectoral provision of literacy campaigns.
This is reflected in the literacy policies of numerous countries, for
example Pakistan (Bines & Morris 2000 p.6).
The Role of Libraries
It is easy to see the
role of public libraries in those developed countries where there are
highly developed networks. In some ways it seems superfluous to
outline the importance of libraries in the adult literacy movement,
though this decade of literacy does provide the impetus to stop and
re-examine what is being done in this age of technology, with a great
emphasis on information literacy.
Wedgeworth (2003) described
public libraries as ‘natural allies’ of the literacy movement. In
his address at the 2003 IFLA conference, he gave some extremely good
arguments as to why the public library movement should revisit its role
in supporting literacy and literacy initiatives. Wedgeworth contends
that the transmission of culture requires communication and the one
essential for effective communication is literacy. Libraries, museums
and archives are the repositories of the artefacts of culture, and have
an important and central role in facilitating access to the information
and knowledge inherent in those artefacts – therefore, libraries have
a vested interest in fostering literacy. It is not enough either to
be mere custodians and these institutions cannot be passive about facilitating
access. This is widely acknowledged by professionals engaged in the
three fields and hence current debates about promoting and teaching
information literacy skills, digitising collections and linking information
seekers with relevant content. It is not such a leap, therefore, to
promote the idea that library professionals have ‘a common purpose
[in]…the obligation to promote a culture of literacy’ (Wedgeworth
2003).
Libraries, with their
networks, geographical distribution, facilities, collections and professionalism
‘bring an impressive net worth to the development of a culture of
literacy’ (Wedgeworth 2003). Support for adult literacy initiatives
draw on the traditional resources provided by libraries.
The UK Vital Link project’s
five-year vision advocates:
all public library authorities
in partnership with basic skills providers
awareness training in libraries’
‘distinctive role in supporting emerging readers’
recognition, at government
level, of that distinctive role
understanding and involvement
by publishers (National Literacy Trust 2003).
Initiatives in the
USA
In the USA, literacy
schemes are supported at Federal, State and local levels, and the American
Library Association co-ordinates family literacy programs. Wedgeworth
(2003) maintains that there are many programs around the world that
promote and encourage literacy among children, but interestingly there
are few for adults. There is now an increasing international hybrid
movement that concentrates on family literacy, or fostering a culture
of reading and literacy within the home. Family Literacy is seen as
an important concept in the USA, with comprehensive schemes supported
at Federal, State and local levels. The American Library Association
wholeheartedly supports family literacy projects:
Through family
literacy programs, the home becomes an environment where young minds
can grow to their fullest potential, and where parents can play active
roles in their children's intellectual development (ALA, 2002)
The ALA also co-ordinates
two family literacy programs: the Bell Atlantic - American Library
Association Family Literacy Projects and the Cargill Cares
program. The Bell Atlantic Foundation has provided more than $1m
since 1989 to sponsor a variety of projects, including those at Baltimore
Pratt Free Library, the District of Columbia Public Library and Marion
County Library, Fairmont. Cargill, a Minneapolis based agricultural
company, has also joined forces with the ALA to sponsor schemes in Hutchinson,
Kansas and Molokai in Hawaii. The Center for the Book at the
Library of Congress also boasts involvement in and support for family
literacy. One example of their interest is the Vibernum Family Literacy
Project which promotes the 'planning, training and promotion of
family literacy projects' amongst libraries and their community partners.
In New York, a year before
the official launch of the United Nations’ Decade of Literacy Proliteracy
Worldwide was formed under the presidency of Robert Wedgeworth,
formerly an academic at Rutgers University. The formation of this movement
brought together two of the word’s largest ‘volunteer literacy organisations’,
with the aim of empowering adults by providing programs and materials
to help them achieve adequate literacy skills (Proliteracy 2003). The
organisation claims to have 1200 affiliates with partners in 27 countries
(Wedgeworth 2003). In his workshop at the IFLA 2003 conference, Wedgeworth
(2003) remarked that he would like to make more formal links with organisations
in Australia.
UK Initiatives
The Government and other
interested parties in the UK are well down the track of fulfilling some
of the goals set out by the Decade of Literacy. In fact the Government
supports it at the highest level. Many of the policies advocated
by UNESCO are already in place in Britain, under the aegis of the UK
Government’s Framework for the Future, published through the
Department of Culture Media and Sport, (DCMS) in February 2003. This
document sets out the Government’s mission of ‘focusing on areas
where intervention provides lasting benefit to society, and long term
strategies for public libraries. Within the listed ‘themes’, three
in particular cover the issues of literacy: Books, Reading and Learning;
Digital Citizenship; and Community Values (Re:Source 2003).
Several of the stated
strategic objectives make explicit the support role of public libraries
to the development of literacy within the community. (Re:Source 2003).
The movement has spawned
many initiatives in the UK. One of those is an ambitious and so far
successful scheme worthy of note. The Vital Link project is a
‘reader development and basic skills initiative’, initially seed-funded
by the DCMS / Wolfston Public Libraries Challenge Fund in 2001.
The overall aim of the project was to link literacy and libraries and
the six stated objectives include:
Establishing a major partnership
programme, harnessing libraries’ reader development work to support
improvement of literacy skills
Establishing effective links
between libraries and the adult basic education sector
Researching and developing
replicable local models
Providing a range of support
strategies
Australia
Bundy (1999) highlighted
the importance of work to link libraries and literacy. In his article
he referred to the first National Survey on Adult Literacy in Australia
No Single Measure (DEET, 1989).
In 2001, the Australian
Council for Adult Literacy published its position paper on adult literacy
and numeracy (ACAL 2001). Some of the key elements of the future policy
agenda of the Council are:
Developing a new national,
comprehensive adult literacy policy
Establishing a national co-ordinating
agency
Holding a national literacy
summit
Activity in libraries
tends to be piecemeal, rather than part of a co-ordinated strategy.
Reading programs and promotion in Australia have, until recently, been
the province of individual libraries and schools with much of the national
impetus through the Australia Council and the book trade. One of the
largest initiatives in promoting reading in Australia, the Books
Alive campaign is part of a $240 million package, the Book Industry
Assistance Plan (BIAP), funded and co-ordinated by the Australia
Council, the arts funding and advisory body of the Federal Government.
One of the most valuable
outputs of the campaign was the results from two important surveys of
reading in Australia, used as a starting point for the project. The
first of these, A National Survey of Reading, Buying and Borrowing
Books for Pleasure (Nielson 2001) was an extensive survey of reading
amongst all ages, covering everything from reading behaviour, attitudes
to reading, reading as a leisure activity to patterns of book acquisition
and purchasing, trends in book buying and borrowing, library usage and
influences on book selection.
Library Initiatives
in developing countries
In Malaysia, the National
Library plays a role in literacy development. 93% of the population
over the age of ten here are literate. The aim in Malaysia is to become
an ‘information Society, which ‘nurtures [a] science and technology
culture by the year 2020’. The National Library, established in 1972,
is becoming involved in the literacy movement in the country.
One of the functions of the Director General of the library is ‘to
promote and facilitate the inculcation of the reading habit’ through
its ‘Readings Promotion Division’ (Kadir 2003). This Division provides
reading promotion programmes including workshops and seminars.
Other reported significant
links are in Africa. Thanks to the Carnegie Corporation of New York,
in conjunction with the International Network for Availability of Scientific
Publications (INASP), some African libraries are being ‘revitalized’.
This joint operation has awarded grants to public libraries ‘to extend
services to those who have been previously un-reached or minimally reached
(Powell 2002 p.245). Projects are currently being run in three countries,
Botswana, Kenya and South Africa. All three countries already have comparatively
high literacy rates, 77%, 82% and 85% respectively (Lauglo 2000
p.8).
In Botswana, part of
the mission of the National Library Service is to ‘promote literacy
and the culture of reading’ (Powell 2002 p.245). The revitalisation
project, will target four libraries which are part of the network of
public, educational and special libraries in the country to broaden
readership and membership bases ((Powell 2002 p.245).
In Kenya the project
is based on a countrywide survey of the public library system (Powell
2002 p.245) and aims to ‘revitalize Kenya National Library Services
through [the] creation of model libraries in Nairobi, Kisumu, Nakuru
and Mombasa (Powell 2002 p.246).
The largest development
is in South Africa. The project is based on the development of public
libraries: The Free State Provincial Library; Mpumalanga Provincial
Library and Information Services; Northern Cape Provincial Library and
Information Services; Durban Metropolitan Library Johannesburg City
Library and Information Services and Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Library
Services. All but two of these prioritise ‘those who are ‘semiliterate’
and illiterate’ and provide programmes targeted at raising literacy
levels (Powell 2002 p.246).
Concluding remarks
For the library profession,
this is an ideal time to reflect on libraries’ role in fostering literacy,
across the world. The idea of partnerships is one that is emphasised
by evaluation reports of literacy campaigns in developing countries
such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is advocated by Wedgeworth in
New York and is part of Government strategies in The UK. Libraries should
play a vital part of that provision. The evidence from Tanzania is that
libraries are needed, specifically to promote literacy.
The role of public libraries
in developed countries is clear. In countries which do not have adequate
infrastructures there is a need for creative thinking and practical
approaches to library support. Some, for example, Mauritius, have
libraries provided by such institutionsas the British Council, many
have university libraries and there is the potential for library development
through schools. In some, such as Malaysia, national libraries take
the lead in literacy support initiatives.
Finally, in these days
of evidence-based practice there is a need for research at all levels,
internationally, nationally and regionally. Much of the literature
calls for research into literacy development practices and is part of
the United Nations Literacy Decade plan of action. There is very little
recent research or literature on library support for literacy or its
impact, particularly in developing countries.
The value of UNESCO’s
Decade of Literacy (2003-2012) is that it highlights an important
global issue, which is of relevance to all countries and nations to
a greater or lesser extent and for different reasons, whether it is
in developed nations where the concern is the technological revolution,
or whether the aim is to eradicate poverty and minimise starvation.
UNESCO’s Decade of Literacy (2003-2012) presents a golden opportunity
for the library movement to examine issues of literacy and reassert
its role of supporting literacy as part of the lifelong learning agenda.
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